Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell provide a clear and concise propaganda definition in their book Propaganda & Persuasion (2014). They write, “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (7). In other words, a more simple way to define it is as a systematic method of manipulation, and it’s quite a successful one. Propaganda has been employed extensively in the political sphere since the 19th century to further various agendas by politicians, opposing candidates, and special interest groups. It is used to highlight the negatives or positives of an idea, a person, or legislation. Hitler used propaganda extensively to promote his anti-Semitic ideas and his vision for Germany in a post-World War I era. In the United States, it was harnessed to boost morale for the general public during war time and for recruitment purposes.
Beyond the meaning above, the process itself relies heavily on ethos and pathos, and will only use logos if it accesses the other two. It isn’t terribly concerned with facts, figures, or truth; instead, propaganda relies mostly on the emotional responses of its audience to generate agreement and action. While students may recognize that there are similar techniques used in both propaganda and advertising, propaganda is generally considered to be a negative term, even though it can be applied to achieve positive goals. Advertising is generally not a negative concept, although it does aim to psychologically prompt its target audience into buying a product. Advertising is primarily concerned with increasing sales; propaganda, on the other hand, is more concerned with changing public attitudes and policy.
Propaganda is defined by particular characteristics, which set it apart from straightforward facts, and usually reveal hidden or underhanded motives or a negative symbol. These elements include:
Appeals to the emotions (pathos) rather than intellect
Information is value-laden and accesses audiences’ judgments, prejudices, and sense of ethics (ethos)
Uses selective information; not balanced
Intentions or motives matter; there is a specific goal for the information
Propaganda uses various mediums to gain attention and target audiences. These mediums include:
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There are very obvious uses that many students will be familiar with, such as the anti-Semitic propaganda of Nazi Germany, or the pro-war posters in the United States during World Wars I and II. Check out The Moon is Down by John Steinbeck, which was written as a pro-democracy novella for the occupied countries of World War II, and is another example. Steinbeck’s book was considered a huge success, and was covertly translated and passed out by underground rebels across Europe.
In response to the rise of propaganda and concern that the general public did not know how to critically analyze information, the Institute of Propaganda Analysis was established in 1937 by Edward Filene, Kirtley Mather, and Clyde R. Miller. The purpose of the Institute was to provide the general public data about the types of propaganda, the tactics used, and strategies to analyze it in order to combat the psychological effects and success of such information. It operated until 1942, and it classified propaganda into seven key categories.
Creates a sense of isolation for audience members who have not yet joined the cause. It appeals strongly to our sense of conformity and longing to belong to a part of a group.
Endorsement by a well-known, well-liked celebrity, political figure, or other entity. This creates a sense of trust and likeability for the cause because of the person promoting it.
Endorsement by regular, ordinary folks, to show how the policy or idea has helped them. This creates a sense of normalcy about the idea that’s being promoted, and shows how its success will fit into everyday life.
Employs techniques that access the audience’s preconceived positive feelings about something, and transfer them to the idea being promoted. It relies heavily on symbolism to connect the audience’s emotions to the idea.
Uses names that evoke a negative emotional response, such as fear, anger, or annoyance. By comparing the person or idea with something else that is hated, the audience creates an association between the two in their minds.
Uses selective information to present only one side of an argument or story. This focus portrays the issue at hand unfairly, and many people may be swayed in one direction or the other because of incomplete details.
Uses strongly loaded words that access the positive emotions of the target audience. Typically, glittering generalities employ the use of slogans, and carefully selected words in the slogans often appeal to the virtues the audience holds dear.
Uses persuasive techniques seen in propaganda to promote products or brands, aiming to influence consumer behavior by shaping perceptions and emotions. It employs strategies like emotional appeals, endorsements, and urgency, found in various media, to create positive associations and encourage purchases.
Books and plays that have been classified as propaganda:
Although this activity can be used for multiple grade levels, below are Common Core State Standards for Grades 9-10. Please see your Common Core State Standards for the correct grade-appropriate strands.
A great way to have students gain an understanding of propaganda is to have them create one of their own. On their own or in a group, have students select a rule or aspect of school they dislike: detention, school lunches, homework, final exams, etc. Then, have them spin it into something positive to promote it to their classmates. As they craft their plan, they should use one of the seven types, and be able to explain how their strategy accesses the emotions of the audience. If they incorporate logos and ethos as well, they should include that in their explanations. Have students create a storyboard they can present to the class that promotes their topic in a positive light.
By studying the different types of propaganda, individuals can gain insights into the varying strategies used to sway public opinion, manipulate emotions, and shape beliefs, empowering them to engage with information more critically and make informed judgments. By recognizing specifically the characteristics of propaganda and familiarizing yourself with the 12 types of propaganda techniques, you can develop the skills needed to discern and analyze information critically. This awareness enables you to make informed decisions and guard against manipulation of perceptions and beliefs.
When discussing with children, use age-appropriate language and examples they understand. Start with a simple definition, like "Propaganda convinces using untrue or biased information." Relate it to ads or social media they know. Encourage questions and critical thinking. Stress that not all info is accurate, discussing possible outcomes of believing propaganda. Highlight diverse views and public relations and media literacy's role in countering it.
Children may encounter various forms of propaganda technique in their daily lives, such as in advertisements, social media posts, television shows, news articles, and even in textbooks. For example, commercials often use catchy slogans and music to persuade children to buy a particular product or brand, while social media posts may be designed to promote a certain viewpoint or ideology. Political propaganda can also be present in children's lives, such as political ads, speeches, and campaign materials. For instance, the relatable behavior and down-to-earth image projected by politicians mingling with everyday citizens exemplify what is called plain folks propaganda, a technique that aims to create a sense of connection and authenticity between leaders and the public. These messages may use emotionally charged language, biased information, or even misinformation to sway people's opinions and beliefs. In schools, textbooks and curriculum materials can also be a source of propaganda. For example, some textbooks may present a particular version of history that portrays a certain country or group in a favorable light, while downplaying or omitting information that does not align with this narrative. By learning to evaluate information carefully and seek out diverse perspectives, children can develop the skills to navigate a complex and often biased media landscape.
Helping children analyze propaganda involves diverse strategies for parents and teachers. Encouraging critical thinking through questions like "Who created this?" and "Is evidence provided?" is effective. Teaching recognition of propaganda techniques—emotional language, appeals to authority—boosts their ability to spot manipulation and negative opinion. This equips children to identify biased influence.
There are many strategies and tools that teachers can use to teach their students about propaganda in the classroom. One approach is to use real-life examples, such as political ads, social media posts, or news articles, to help students understand the techniques and strategies that are commonly used. Another strategy is to use role-playing activities, debates, or simulations to help students practice critical thinking and media literacy skills. For example, students can be divided into groups and assigned to represent different viewpoints on a particular issue, and then engage in a debate or discussion to practice evaluating and analyzing information from multiple perspectives. Teachers can also use media literacy resources, such as online games, interactive lessons, or multimedia projects, to help students develop their critical thinking and analysis skills.